Too often the amount harvested becomes the primary focus of extraction permits and resource management plans at the expense of timing and methods of harvest. Our biological monitoring studies in Humla revealed that the main commercial NTFPs were actually found in large quantities and less than one percent of the available stock had been harvested each year.

When further investigated it was found that the most accessible areas were coming under pressure, but more because of inappropriate methods and season of harvest. The method of extraction was by far more critical than the amount harvested. Regeneration studies that documented the optimal harvesting conditions were then examined and are being shared with the collectors. This will allow the collectors to maintain the biological health of the more accessible areas.

A summary of the recommended optimal harvesting practices for selected NTFPs as determined from the biological field research and studies completed in Humla is presented in Table 1.

Table 1.  Recommended Optimal Harvesting Practices for Sustainable NTFP Use

Box 1: Reconciling Social Factors with Ecological Factors – the Case of Jatamansi

When is Best to Harvest Jatamansi? Jatamansi is dormant from late Autumn until early Summer. During the Winter, plants are covered in snow, making harvest impractical. The plants sprout in early Summer, after the Winter snow melts, and grow until Autumn. The social and ecological effects of Autumn (mid-October to mid-December) versus Summer (mid-May to mid-July) harvesting were examined to determine when it is best to harvest Jatamansi. Both seasons are similar in terms of spare time available to the collectors. From the collectors’ point of view, Summer is comfortable weather for harvesting work. Whole roots can be pulled up easily from the moist and less compact soil during Summer. During Autumn, the soil is very hard due to freezing and it is difficult to pull out the roots. The collection of Jatamansi is a hardship on collectors during cold weather. There is also a high risk that collectors may have to return empty handed if snow falls early.  As it is easy to pull or dig up the plants during Summer, collectors have a tendency to harvest a higher percentage of plants at this time. Loosening of soil surface and the trampling damage by the grazing animals after Summer harvests also accelerate soil erosion during the rainy season. Harvesting in Summer is also detrimental to the remaining plants and propagules as most of them decay after the harvest during the rainy season. Finally when Jatamansi is harvested during the beginning of its growing season (Summer), its annual yield is reduced. The quality of Jatamansi harvested in Autumn was found to be better than that harvested in Summer. The Jatamansi harvested in Autumn has a low moisture content, is less likely to be damaged by fungi and other factors, and produces heavier high quality essential oils. The Jatamansi harvested in Summer contains high moisture, is likely to be damaged by fungi, and produces poor quality essential oils. Therefore, Autumn is recommended as a more appropriate season of harvesting from the biological point of view. Appreciating the tradeoffs that must be made between the social and ecological factors, the method of harvesting and other management considerations (e.g. grazing practices, burning, etc.) is important when devising management plans.

1 Mr. Subedi is Coordinator of ANSAB
2 Ms. Ann Koontz is Commodity Director (Natural Products) of Enterprise Works Worldwide,
 e-mail:koontza@enterpriseworks.org

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The Location
Situated in the high mountains and Himalaya of the Northwest corner of Nepal, Humla is one of the most remote and neglected districts of Nepal. Humla lies between the distinct botanical regions of the Eastern and Western Himalaya. Its geography, remoteness and isolation have created a region of high floral diversity, with distinctive vegetation, including many internationally traded plant species.

Biological Resources and their Significance
The main biological resources used in the project area are forests and alpine grasslands. The project's more than 51,000 hectares of forest, scrub and grassland, representing almost three-fifths of the total land area, are the natural habitats for about 1,500 species of plants. These resources not only fulfill the subsistence needs of the local people but also help them generate cash income. These resources provide trees, shrubs, herbs and a variety of products from them - timber for building houses, wood for making agricultural tools and implements, fuel-wood for cooking and heating, fodder for animals, and a variety of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for medicine and trade. For local people, NTFPs are found to be more valuable than timber products from an economic as well as cultural point of view.

Develop local capacity to harvest, process, and market NTFPs combining indigenous knowledge with external expertise.

Internal and External Threats to Biological Diversity
Our assessment in 1995 revealed that the complex ecosystem of Humla is threatened by over-harvesting of commercial plant species as well as overgrazing, slash-and-burn farming, uncontrolled burning of pasture and forests, and unmanaged harvesting of timber, fuel wood and fodder. These practices were the results of several socioeconomic factors such as poverty, immediate cash needs of local people, lack of alternative income generating opportunities, defective property rights, lack of incentive for conservation, limited knowledge on conservation, and increasing market demand for these products.

Challenges and Opportunities
The main challenges for the sustainable use of in situ biodiversity identified fall under (a) policy, regulation and practices, (b) market system and marketing support services, and (c) science and technology. After the analysis of these challenges and opportunities we concluded that proper support to forest user groups (FUGs) in including NTFPs in the management plans for the management, harvest and sale, along with the establishment of enterprises that use these products, can achieve the broad objectives of community development, income generation to rural poor, and conservation of biodiversity. It was expected that the additional benefits from the biodiversity resources will provide an incentive to local communities to identify and take action against both internal and external threats to biodiversity.

Approach and Strategies
With the clear objective of creating conservation incentives for our approach was participatory, flexible and innovative. The main strategic actions undertaken together with local people and other stakeholders (not necessarily in an order of time or importance) include:

*Use enterprise as a key entry point to provide an opportunity so that local people see tangible value of biodiversity and realize threats to local biodiversity
* Build local capacity by organizing and supporting local community based organizations
* Help institutionalize local biological resource management and conservation practices under Nepal's community forestry policy, legislation, and procedure
* Facilitate FUGs in selecting best management practices offering a range of options to choose from
* Provide innovative community resource mapping and conflict resolution skills
*Integrate conservation education programs with the conservation activities
* Provide market and business support services
* Integrate participatory monitoring with conservation and enterprise activities
* Establish linkages and coordination among FUGs
* Get support from national level forum for policy formulation and implementation

Conservation Impacts
We have achieved several levels of conservation impacts as well as developed a methodology for determining sustainable NTFP harvesting practices that take into account time of harvest, amount harvested, and method of harvest. The conservation impacts documented through the biological study include:

a. Area Brought Under Improved Management
Before the project there were no community FUGs in Humla. Within the project area, 24 FUGs, representing 1,966 households were formed. Nineteen of these FUGs now formally manage over 10,000 ha of forest and pastureland in the project area. It is important to note that the enterprise activities of the project were a key entry point that rallied the community members and collector groups to become organized into FUGs as well as actively participate in the conservation activities.
The Humla FUG development process was also the first in Nepal to include NTFPs in forest management plans. While there are 7,000 FUGs nationwide in Nepal, the management plans focus on timber, even though NTFPs were of much greater commercial value to most communities. The project has also encouraged FUG formation in non-project areas of Humla. There are 15 FUGs outside the project area, making a total of 39 FUGs for the entire district of Humla.

b. Threat Reduction
Communities and project staff estimated 54% of threats have been mitigated during the project period using the same criteria from the baseline study.  These criteria reflect the change in area being threatened as well as the intensity of the threat.

c. Documentation of Sustainable Harvesting Practices
While the detailed biological studies and documentation for sustainable harvesting practices have been done for selected commercial NTFPs, the methodology is now tested and documented so that it can more easily be done for other products. Another important aspect of the documentation on sustainable harvesting practices is the emphasis on methods and timing of extraction. Previous emphasis was on amount harvested. But the monitoring result shows that the amount harvested was not the most critical factor in instituting sustainable harvesting practices.

d. Adoption of Conservation Practices
There have been several promising trends in the area of adoption of conservation practices. Since these practices are new to the communities, we are not yet able to provide quantitative environmental impacts that are tied to the practices. Yet we are encouraged that the following sustainable practices have been adopted by some villages in the project area with positive economic and environmental results.

1. Reduced pasture burning in the major NTFP collection areas.
2. Implementation of rotational harvesting and enforcement of group collection practices at the village level.
3.  Institutionalization of rules and regulations and effective policing by FUGs.

e. Initiation of biological and social monitoring of harvesting practices by FUGs
These experiences serve as solid models for other communities and we would expect to see more communities adopting the conservation practices in the future. The main vehicle for communicating the conservation practices was the integrated conservation.
education and training through literacy programs and specialized conservation publications. As a result, local communities have adopted several conservation practices. From the socio-economic monitoring we found that adult literacy increased by 47% in the project area because of these classes. This increased literacy along with community led adoption should make expansion of the conservation practices easier in the future.

f. Socio-Economic Impacts
Local capacity for conservation and development activities has increased with the formation of FUGs, their federation and other local organizations. This has been strengthened with the increased literacy and conservation awareness.

With the establishment of a community owned processing company, the collectors’ price of a commercially valuable plant (Jatamansi) doubled without any change in the existing market price and demand. The total collectors' annual income from NTFPs tripled from Rs 2,665,436 (US $39,783) to Rs 10,096,725 (US $150,697). This mechanism provided equitable returns to local community groups and hence incentives for conserving the resource base.

The FUGs that have had forest areas formally handed over to them now receive royalties on the NTFPs that are collected from their forests. Previously these royalty payments went to the government. The FUGs of Humla collected a total of Rs 2,187,314 (US $32,646) for the last three years ending 1998.

The FUGs that have been receiving royalty payments are now discussing ways to invest their group funds. The options under discussion include: village electrification using solar power; trail construction activities; small scale edible oil pressing; and planting tree saplings near villages to control soil erosion and landslides. Some money has been used for paying watchmen's salaries, in order to protect forest areas from the illegal harvesting of products. All investments from the royalties collected from natural products will have some connection to general village development or natural resource conservation. The individual groups will decide for themselves how to best use these funds.
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Mr. Subedi is the Coordinator of ANSAB

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Koshi hills is one of the potential areas for different NTFPs. There are 1,021 forest users groups in Koshi hills and among them more than 100 have initiated the farming of different NTFPs in community forests (CF). The FUGs have successfully planted Bamboo, Amliso, Cardamom, Nigalo, Argeli, Lokta, and Parayang.

a. Changes occurring through NTFP management
Awareness level of FUGs on NTFP management has increased in the Koshi hills in the past few years. The local indigenous knowledge has also been recognized and promoted. The management of NTFPs is also contributing to increase a FUG fund, which is being spent on different community development activities. The management of NTFP in CF is contributing  to  income of the FUGs, while also enhancing biodiversity. However, there are issues related to NTFP management which require further discussions among the stakeholders.
 

Examples of Active FUGs in Koshi Hills There are 25 FUGs involved in resin collection in Dhankuta.  Chitre Dhodre FUG of Dhankuta is involved in Allo processing. FUG of Chaite in Terhathum and Okhre in Snakhuwasabha are actively managing Lokta and Argeli (Mitsumata) where as Tinjure Baisakhetalo in Terathum is involved in cultivation of Chiraito.

b. Some issues related to NTFP management experienced in the Koshi Hills
1.Limited  participation of poor, women, and disadvantaged groups in decision making and benefit sharing
2. Over-exploitation of NTFPs, mainly medicinal plants
3. Inapplicable government policy for NTFPs
4. Limited links between research and extension
5. Limited market system analysis, value additions  and processing practices at local/national levels
6. Inadequate Government support and encouragement for cultivation of NTFPs for individuals and FUGs
7. Limited documentation and dissemination of local knowledge on management of NTFP
8. Limited access to credit facilities to NTFP entrepreneurs
9. Limited training, extension and pilot action research in NTFP management at FUG level
10. Inadequate mechanism to enhance experience-sharing on NTFP management among FUGs

c. Conclusion:
There is good scope to manage NTFP in Community Forests. This can contribute to poverty alleviation through the generation of income and employment opportunities in a short period of time. The FUGs need support from the public, private and donor agencies to initiate NTFP management practices. At the same time, concerted effort is required to address the issues relating to policy, technology, marketing, gender, equity and environment. The action research by FUGs and other stakeholders can be a first step to initiate a participatory management of NTFPs.
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Mr. Dahal is Community Forestry Adviser of Nepal UK Community Forestry Project, Koshi Hills Area
e-mail: koshi@nukdhk.mos.com.np

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Humla is the remotest high mountainous district of western Nepal. According to some Tantric Buddhist texts, this district, which is rich in natural resources including high-value medicinal plants, is considered a holy place of the high mountains.

In Humla two types of cultural beliefs exist about conserving the natural resources. They are-a) the belief system of the "Bhot" (Tibetan speakers Buddhist communities); and b) the belief system of "Mon" (the Shamanists communities of both Aryan and Mongolian origin, who follow the system of caste and speak Nepali language as their mother tongue).

In the culture of both communities, the conservation of natural resources is considered essential. Both of these cultures have a system of protecting religious forests around Shamans' Shrines and Lamas' Gompas. But Buddhist culture is more sensitive and it elaborates details about the concept of conservation.

According to Tibetan Buddhism (also known as Lamaism), "Lu" (Naga, the spirit of the underneath world) is the master of all sorts of natural resources and the Lu has a power of balancing the nature. The Buddhists believe that the Lu resides in lakes and their watershed areas. Therefore extraction of the NTFPs and cutting of trees especially in those areas are strictly prohibited. A general belief is that, NTFPs are under Lu's protection and his curse will harm those who offend him by collecting the NTFPs from the restricted area. For example, in Limi VDC, there is a restriction on hunting animals and collecting wild herbs in the areas near Gompas and holy lakes. Anybody, who breaks this moral rule, is believed to be harmed by the Lu and he/she will have fatal diseases like leprosy and other natural misfortunes.

Lu is believed to have power of giving rain, sun, wealth and prosperity in general. Some specific medicinal plants are considered to be as organs of Lu. If such medicinal plants are collected from the wild, where Lu is believed to reside, Lu will be injured. And if the Lu becomes unhealthy, it directly affects human beings. If the Lu is happy, nature is automatically balanced. If nature is balanced, it is believed that timely rainfall and sunshine happens. In Lamaism, Lu is considered to be the god of environment who keeps the balance of nature.

To get rid of these dangers, Lamas perform rituals of healing the Lu's injured organs.  Some specific medicinal plants and different kinds of jewelry are kept in a magical earthen vessel and are offered to Lu to restore Lu's divine power, which will in turn restore prosperity and happiness to the humankind. In this way, Lamaism, is an example of the culture that discourages animal hunting and collection of NTFPs from certain areas thus contributing in biodiversity conservation.
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Mr. Lama is Director of Humla Conservation and Development Association

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 Nepal Swiss Community Forestry Project had conducted a study on the economic potential for FUGs through sustainable management of cardamom, Allo and Machino in the districts of Dolakha and Ramechhap.

This study focused on the chain of production of the three NTFPs. Costs and benefits at various steps and potential income for FUGs were also analyzed.

Information was gathered by visiting the selected FUGs, which are already involved in the management of these NTFPs and using the PRA methodology. Markets and processing factories were other sources of information. Some contradictory but interesting issues were identified during the study.

1. The management of NTFPs is not easy at the beginning for the FUGs that are less experienced and institutionally less capable. For example, cardamom plantation was done in some community forests without any difficulties but when the time came for harvesting, drying and selling, many Community Forests were unable to reach consensus as there was mistrust among the members.

2. Some FUGs have started to categorize FUG members according to their income and wealth ranking. Poor people are involved more in the management of NTFPs so they can secure extra income for their survival. It was observed that involving poor people has shown good results.

3. The poor and disadvantaged people are merely involved in the harvesting, drying and hauling (and sometimes processing) of NTFPs. They would have gained more opportunities if the products were less commercialized. With the commercialization, the products have high values and demands and are mostly dealt with by rich people. For example, processing of Allo for textile was usually done by poor people since it is time-consuming and manually done. But with increased demand and high commercialization of this product, big businessmen have started investing in this product. Special attention should be given to help poor people by providing new technology and access to finance. In Chuchure VDC of Ramechhap, nearly 80% of the total household are involved in the harvesting, processing, transportation and selling of NTFPs. This increased involvement in NTFP collection and sale has sharply decreased the migration rate from the area.

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Mr Poudel is currently studying at University of Cambridge, UKtop